A New Edition of a Classical Methodology Handbook

If you are involved in Teaching English as Foreign Language (TEFL) training, either as trainer or trainee, you will be familiar with Harmer’s (2007) The Practice of English Language Teaching, first published in 1983. This book belongs to the Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers series. The book is divided into ten chapters with clear sub-headings; each chapter has a valuable list of references and further reading suggestions. This new edition contains an interesting Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) of classroom practice and teacher interviews conducted by Harmer himself, which can be used as a focus for discussion.

There are many positive features in this book. Given the breadth and depth of topics covered, the author has done a remarkably good job, using clear and simple language, suitable for teacher trainees whose first language is not English. Furthermore, it contains many examples of teaching activities that make use of various techniques and resources discussed. Another plus is that the author’s personal preferences do not intrude. Everything is described objectively and clearly, leaving it to the reader to select what may be appropriate to the specific teaching context.

The book has much to recommend it, but there are a few drawbacks. Some explanations tend to be a bit lengthy, so it would have been simpler for a reader to grasp a concept if the text had been aided by visual representations. Another weakness is that the nine lessons presented in the DVD are highly neutral; a wider range of contexts could have been included to reproduce real teaching situations. Additionally, they seem teacher-centred following the Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP) style; this might have been a result of the editing which had reduced each lesson to a ten minutes length.

The book attempts to deal with almost every aspect of English Language Teaching (ELT), a difficult goal, but it has covered all the major basics. Whether teachers dip into this book to follow threads of a particular issue or topic, or whether they read it from cover to cover, they will find it a useful, well-resourced discussion of ELT practice. This edition is offered as a record of where ELT is right now, meeting the challenges of new ideas, new technology and new concerns. The book will undoubtedly continue its strong contribution to the ELT profession.

References

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (4th ed.). England: Pearson Education Limited.

The Role of Teachers in Adult Education

Learning a new language implies a challenging endeavour at every stage of life. However, adults tend to perceive English as Foreign Language (EFL) instruction in a more complex way than children and teenagers. Consequently, as EFL teachers we must contemplate and understand adults’ needs and individualities. If we fail in achieving this, we may negatively influence the learning process. To illustrate this concept I will make reference to a personal experience I faced while attending Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) College.

I had to substitute a colleague in an Elementary class of twelve adult learners, which I had not observed before. The lesson started as planned, then break time arrived and the group went out from the classroom, just a woman remained in. She was unsuccessfully trying to solve the activities I had previously presented, so I sat down and began to explain the topic, but the bell rang and the rest of the class came in. Understanding students and addressing their particular needs are essential to integrate the learner into the classroom environment (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011), so I deduced this learner required extra assistance to achieve this.

At the end of the lesson, this woman stayed in the classroom until everyone else was out. Then, she told me that it was extremely difficult for her to understand English, but that when she was given personalized instruction she could perform better. She also expressed that she felt ashamed because her partners were able to use English and she did not, so she preferred not to ask for extra help in front of them. In relation to this topic, Baskas (2011) mentioned that to decrease mistakes-related embarrassment while providing the motivation to continue learning, it is necessary to create a safe and comfortable environment.

When I met the teacher of this group, I informed him about this situation and he replied that this student always behaved in that way, that she was “the stone in his shoe”. In that moment I regretted not having done more to help this woman. According to Wati (2011), “in the challenge of bringing the students to have English competency as International language, teachers must be ready to accept and adapt themselves with many kinds of changes that happen around them” (p. 80). By applying what I was learning in TEFL College, I could have enhanced my classroom practice in the hopes of improving this student’s situation.

Through the analysis of this event, I may conclude that the role and attitude of the permanent teacher did not succeed in fostering motivation. According to the Centre for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA (2011), maintaining learners’ engagement requires minimizing conditions that negatively affect motivation and maximizing conditions that have a positive motivational effect. Moreover, the teacher failed in demonstrating respect towards this student, even though this is an essential component in classroom learning since it encourages motivation, resulting in an increased likelihood of success (Baskas, 2011).

It is important to consider the different aspects that are involved in adult education, both from the learners and teachers’ perspectives. Adult students do need to be motivated and engaged to realize the importance or their learning, so supportive teachers and peers and challenging opportunities for choice are indispensable to achieve a comfortable, affective and effective learning environment. As educators we cannot overlook students’ requirements and learning styles differences. Furthermore, we must acknowledge the responsibilities that our profession demands us.

References

Baskas, R. S. (2011). Adult learning assumptions. Educational Resources Information Centre. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED517971.pdf

Baskas, R. S. (2011). Applying adult learning and development theories to educational practice. Educational Resources Information Centre. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED519926.pdf

Centre for Mental Health in Schools at UCLA (2011). A resource aid packet on school engagement, disengagement, learning supports & school climate. University of California. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED519151.pdf

Kenner, C., & Weinerman, J. (2011). Adult learning theory: applications to non-traditional college students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2). Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ926365.pdf

Wati, H. (2011). The effectiveness of Indonesian English teachers training programs in improving confidence and motivation. International Journal of Instruction, 4(1). Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED522911.pdf

The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as a Resource for Classroom Reflection

 

The application of the CIT in different educational contexts provides several benefits in the teaching-learning process, since teachers gain insights that might lead to improvement. I consider that if the technique is carried out objectively and reflectively, the positive outcomes of its implementation may be advantageous for both teachers and learners, promoting awareness of many complex and unpredictable factors that may arise in classrooms.

Flanagan (1954) proposed the CIT as a set of flexible procedures for collecting direct observations of human behaviour, in order to solve practical problems. The variety of situations in which the collection of critical incidents (CIs) proves to be useful is immense; however its usage in the area of education has displayed outstanding consequences, being a worthwhile tool for teachers’ assessment and reflection. According to Khandelwal (2009), the CIT provided sound evidence for selecting, training and evaluating teachers.

The CIT is widely used to show teachers’ points of view by writing about CIs they faced when teaching (Bilbao & Monereo, 2011; Fernández-González, Elórtegui-Escartín & Medina-Pérez, 2003; Kennedy & Wyrick, 1995; Newman, 1987). Kennedy and Wyrick (1995) explained:

We recommend this [CIT] as an action-oriented means of understanding one’s underlying assumptions about teaching in the classroom. . . . Transformative learning takes place only when one compares assumptions in place before the reflective process to those changed assumptions because of the step by step process of asking the what and why questions. (p. 12)

The CIT can also be focused on the learners’ perspective, identifying the types of incidents that students find critical and examining how these influence their learning, promoting students’ autonomy, learning strategies and responsibility (Finch, 2010). The analysis of the CIs attempts to foster constructive learning; Cruickshank and Applegate (1981) stated that “the emphasis is on reflection – helping teachers think about what happened, why it happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals” (p. 553).

The use of the CIT not only presents a detailed insight into teachers’ practices, but also gives students the opportunity to express their experiences as regards positive and negative teachers’ performances. Teachers who practice reflection about their teaching decisions will become lifelong learners who get involved in a continuous self-improvement process. The comparison, sharing and analysis of the CIs offer an invaluable resource for reflective and meaningful teaching and learning.

References

Bilbao, G., & Monereo, C. (2011). Identificación de incidentes críticos en maestros en ejercicio: propuestas para la formación permanente. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 13(1). Retrieved October 2011, from http://redie.uabc.mx/vol13no1/contenido-bilbaomonereo.html

Cruickshank, D. R., & Applegate, J. H. (1981). Reflective teaching as a strategy for teacher growth. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_198104_cruickshank.pdf

Fernández-González, J., Elórtegui-Escartín, N., & Medina-Pérez, M. (2003). Los incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17(1), 101-112. Retrieved October 2011, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Finch, A. (2010). Critical incidents and language learning: sensitivity to initial conditions. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.finchpark.com/arts/SYS-1012.pdf

Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4). Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/Readings/flanagan.pdf

Kennedy, R. L., & Wyrick, A. M. (1995). Teaching as reflective practice. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (Biloxi, Mississippi, November 1995). Retrieved October 2011, from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED393850.pdf

Khandelwal, K. A. (2009). Effective teaching behaviours in the college classroom: a critical incident technique from students’ perspective. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(3), 299-309. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ909053.pdf

Newman, J. M. (1987). Learning to teach by uncovering our assumptions. Language Arts, 64(7), 727-737. Retrieved October 2011, from http://www.lupinworks.com/article/learn.html

Shared Features of Discourse Communities (DCs)

The purpose of this paper is to find evidence to support the theory of a basic criterion to recognize a certain group of people as an academic DC. Swales (1987) defines a DC as “a group of people who share a set of social conventions that is directed towards some purpose” (p. 1). The shared characteristics of DCs not only provide the guidelines to identify them, but they also give the necessary information to understand an analytical definition of a DC.

Swales (1987) establishes that a DC should share goals, participatory mechanisms, information exchange, community-specific genres, specialized terminology and a general level of expertise. Following these criteria, it may be stated that the members of college DCs develop a common discourse with a particular structure and style, involving shared knowledge, common purposes, relationships, attitudes, values and principles (Kutz, 1997, cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2001).

As regards communality of interests, Ford (1999) states that the purpose of college DCs should be developing an evaluation process emphasizing quality teaching. In 2003, Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles and Lopez-Torres noted:

Teacher reflection in social context occurs as teachers engage in and share their reflections in diverse ways. . . . Whether through writing, speaking, or simple listening . . .  , teachers are participating in the construction of knowledge as well as crafting identities within the activity system of this inquiring group. (p. 4)

Mechanisms for intercommunication to exchange information and feedback are universal conventions of DCs, being journals or virtual communication frequently used to share and respond to experiences (Blanton, Simmons & Warner, 2001). Journal editors and peer reviewers must provide opportunities for community members to share their perspectives and experiences (Kelly-Kleese, 2004). Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) confirm this, encouraging teachers to participate in professional DCs that discuss learning theories, materials and pedagogy.

With reference to the development of community-specific genres, Kelly-Kleese (2004) explains that assessment is crucial, so DC members must understand writing conventions and judgement standards. This quality is related to a specialized terminology, which Kutz (1997) denominates communicative competence and defines it as “what one must know in order to use language appropriately in particular DCs” (as cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p. 4). Furthermore, Zito (1984) claims that only those who are qualified may engage in a DC and be taken seriously (cited in Kelly-Kleese, 2001), giving importance to critical expertise.

The main conclusion that issues from this discussion is that discourse communities must have certain characteristics that distinguish them, in concordance with Swales’ theory. Consequently, the fact that groups have things in common does not imply that they form DCs. In addition, individuals may belong to several DCs and command a variety of different genres with their corresponding terminology. For a DC to exist a collaborative culture is essential in order to promote a communality of interests and reflection.

References

Blanton, W. E., Simmons, E., & Warner, M. (2001). The fifth dimension: Application of cultural-historical activity theory, inquiry-based learning, computers and telecommunications to change prospective teachers’ preconceptions. Journal of Education Computing Research. Retrieved September 2011, from http://faculty.soe.syr.edu/takoszal/IDE800-Adv-ID-and-ET/IDE850_sp06/additional_readings/blanton_simon-CHAT.pdf

Ford, C. V. P. (1999). ERIC review: Scholarship in the community college system. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_4_26/ai_63323073/?tag=mantle_skin;content

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. J., & Lopez-Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: Teacher learning as praxis. Theory into Practice. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor's choice: An open memo to community college faculty and administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_29/ai_77481463 

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: Community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541

Swales, J. (1987). Approaching the concept of discourse community. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication (38th, Atlanta, GA, March 19-21, 1987). Retrieved September 2011, from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED286184.pdf 

Wenzlaff, T. L., & Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers need teachers to grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved September 2011, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405

Welcome Message

My name is Guillermina Elena Schenk. I live in Carpinteria, a small town in the province of San Luis (Argentina) and I am a teacher of English. I graduated from Instituto Superior de Lengua Inglesa (Villa Mercedes). I work at Primary and Secondary schools and I also own a small school of English.

I am currently studying a Licenciatura en Enseñanza del Idioma Ingles at Universidad CAECE. In this blog you will find papers related to two classes: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP). It is not a simple responsibility, it demands a lot of time and effort, but I am convinced the results worth it.

I hope you find my ideas interesting and feel free to express yours. I am really looking forward to start this new journey in my life and I am sure it will be an exciting experience.